Karl Marx - Capitalist Alienation Essay -- Socialism Communism Labor

A century and a half ago, Karl Marx established a theory that today is known as the backbone to modern fabianism and communism. Marx viewed the early capitalism of his own day as inherently exploitive. At the core of capitalist production is what is considered surplus value, the value left over by and by the producer (in Marxs case, factory owner) had paid the fixed costs of production such as raw materials, machinery, overhead and wages. The left over amount was unploughed as profit, a profit that Marx saw that was earned from the sweat of the lug. Derived from his idea of surplus value was that of alienation. Marx gave an economic interpretation to alienation. People were alienated from their own labor their work was appropriated by someone else and the work itself was compulsory, not creative the cause was capitalism, and the cure was socialism. Marx believed that modern labor is an evolution of something that began centuries ago and encompassing everything from slave states to European feudalism right on up to todays version of commercial capitalism which, completed or perfected the capitalist technique of doer alienation. Marx is correct in saying that capitalism exploits the working class, and that working under capitalism is in fact alienating. Worker alienation became an effective calamus by which the capitalist could separate themselves from the laborers of their nations. The separation, however, was more to show a capitalists class status rather than having...

Macbeth :: essays research papers

The Elizabethan Concept of the female monarchIntro Our actions define who we are. Who we are, defines our actions. This concept has been common to man throughout history, and the Elizabethans are no exception. They applied this statement to their kings in an attempt to classify them as good or bad, strong or weak. In the play Macbeth, we notice many references to the characteristics of a good king. The Elizabethan view was that if a king was weak, he would be taken advantage of and killed.Thesis Statement The Elizabethan view of the king has taught us that a king mustiness(prenominal) possess certain characteristics in pose to survive. A king must have physical and emotional strength, good judgement, intelligence, confidence, and demythologised thinking, or he will be killed. 1st point - physical and emotional strengthTopic Sentence A good king must possess physical and emotional strength or he will be taken advantage of and killed.Duncan-Act I Scene II-Reveals King Duncan as m ild and benevolent, but weak and unfit to be a king. -Shows his physical weakness because there was rebellion and invasion, but Duncan was not out leading his army. (I, II, 1)-Act I Scene IV-Shows Duncans emotional weakness-He is too weak and shows over-gratitude. (I, IV, 33)Macbeth-Macbeth shows emotional weakness when he hallucinates-During Macbeths soliloquy in Act II Scene I, he hallucinates and covers a dagger floating in front of him. (II, I, 33)As you can see through these examples, both(prenominal) Duncan and Macbeth show physical weakness and in return are both killed.2nd point - good judgementTopic Sentence In order for a king to stay in power and stay alive, he must make the right decisions and use good judgement.Duncan-Uses bad judgement by giving Macbeth the title of Thane of Cawdor-Rewards Macbeth and not Banquo which could cause envy in Banquo and cause Macbeth to feel more important than Banquo-Shows that he is a poor judge of human beings nature (I, IV, 11)-Show s poor judgement in choosing a time to reveal Malcolm as his successor to the throne-Could not see Macbeths ambition which others could see (I, III, 120)-Uses bad judgement when deciding to sleep at Macbeths house (I, VI, 1)Macbeth-Makes a bad decision to kill Banquo which made the people more shadowy -Decides to kill Macduffs family, which gave Macduff the motive to kill Macbeth. (IV, III, 233)3rd point - intelligence, confidence, and rational thinkingTopic Sentence To avoid being killed, a king must be intelligent, rational, and confident.

The Great Gatsby by Fitzgerald :: Papers

The Great Gatsby by Fitzgerald The Great Gatsby describes The unending quest after the romantic dream, which is forever betrayed in concomitant (Robert Omstein) Is it inevitable that dreams fail in this novel? The wild profligacy of Gatsbys parties, the shallowness and aimlessness of the guests and the hint of Gatsbys participation in theft and crime all aim the period and the American setting. But as a piece of social commentary The Great Gatsby also portrays the breakdown of the American dream, from the viewpoint that American governmental ideals conflict with the actual society since American democracy is based on the equality between people, the truth is that social discrimination still existed and the divisions among the classes could not be overcome. This made the dream of many of which is to become part of the higher social class, represented by East Egg, impossible to attain. In the novel, Myrtle is one of the characters whose desires start from social ambitions. She wanted to accommodate into the higher social values and to do so she had an affair with Tom and imitates his course of living, but it results in her becoming as vulgar and corrupt. Her dreams and ambitions resulted in her death. She therefore finds herself failing to reach her dreams and becomes only a shell of what she yearns to be. Gatsbys dreams on the other hand are more of a crucial struggle. Unlike Myrtles desire, which springs from social ambitions, Gatsbys dreams are related more to his idealism and his confidence in lifes potentials. Undoubtedly, his desire is also influenced by social considerations Daisy, who is wealthy and beautiful, represents a way of life, which is remote from Gatsbys and therefore more attractive because it is out of reach. However, social consciousness is not a basic cause. It simply directs and focuses Gatsbys belief in lifes possibilities. Like Myrtle, Gatsby struggles to fit himself into another social group, but his attempt is more vital because his whole faith in life is involved in it.

ph levels Essay -- essays research papers

IntroductionIn 1909 S.P.L. Sorensen published a paper in Biochem Z in which he discussed the effect of H1+ ions on the activity of enzymes. In the paper he invented the term pH to describe this effect and defined it as the -logH1+ . In 1924 Sorensen realized that the pH of a solution is a function of the "activity" of the H1+ ion non the concentration and published a second paper on the subject. A better rendering would be pH=-logaH1+ , where aH1+ denotes the activity of the H1+ ion. The activity of an ion is a function of many variables of which concentration is one. It is unfortunate that chemistry texts use a definition for pH that has been disused for over 50 years. Because of the difficulty in accurately measuring the activity of the H1+ ion for most solutions the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the National authorisation of Standards (NBS) has defined pH as the reading on a pH meter that has been standardized against standard buffers. The following equation is used to calculate the pH of all solutions The activity of the H1+ ion is determined as accurately as possible for the standard solutions used. The identity of these solutions vary from one authority to another, but all shit the same values of pH to 0.005 pH unit. The historical definition of pH is correct for those solutions that are so dilute and so pure the H1+ ions are not influenced by anything but the solvent molecules (usually water). In most solutions the pH ...

Biography of Catherine the Great Essay examples -- Empress Russian His

Biography of Catherine the GreatOne of the most interesting, hard-working and powerful people to grace the pages of annals during the eighteenth century was Catherine II, Empress of Russia. Historians have not always been so kind to her memory, and all too often one reads accounts of her private life, ignoring her galore(postnominal) achievements. The stories of her love affairs have been overly misinterpreted and can be traced to a handful of French writers in the years immediately after Catherines death, when Republican France was fighting for its life against a coalition that included Russia. Catherine was born Sophia Augusta Frederika of Anhalt-Zerbst on April 21, 1729 in Stettin, then Ger some, now Poland. Her father, Prince Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, was a high-ranking officer in the Prussian forces and a minor prince among the principalities in Germany. He married the much younger Princess Johanna of Holstein-Gottorp. Years before, Johannas brother Karl August of Holstein-Gottorp had gone to Russia to marry the Princess Elizabeth Petrovna. However the Prince died of small pox, go forth Elizabeth heart-broken. Elizabeths sister, Anna gave contain to a son named prick Ulrich, however tragedy once again struck as Annas died of tuberculosis three months after giving birth to Peter. Peter, who eventually became Tsar Peter III, was the only surviving male descendent and the potentially heir to the throne of Russia after his father died. In November 1741, Elizabeth seized the throne with the jockstrap of the Imperial Guards, and formally declared her nephew Peter heir to the throne. Peter was now 14 years old, and it was time for him to find a bride. Elizabeth had always remembered the family of her dead fiance with fondness, and chose Sophie as the bride to be. The Empress Elizabeth seemed to have taken an instant liking to Sophie at an early age. Sophie began to learn the Russian language and studied the Orthodox religion, which of course ple ased the Empress. On June 28, Sophie was received into the Church in a great ceremony, and as a result changed her name to Catherine. Catherine was now the second highest-ranking lady in the country. Shortly after, Peter obtained measles, which started to show all the symptoms of small pox. Catherine found him to be a most pitiful creature, and it was with dismay that she looked towards her wedding day. The royal... ...h the many relationships she formed with men. Perhaps we misunderstand her many attachments. She loved to teach, and she had much knowledge to give. We can see from her many letters to Baron von Grimm, that she took pride in the education of her young protgs. Perhaps what many historians interpret as promiscuous behavior, was nothing more than her filling the lonely hours by sharing her vast knowledge with the young men she deemed worthy of her attention. She had foresightful and lasting relationships with Orlov and Potemkin, and it seems that she was capable of bei ng faithful and devoted. Russia owes her much. After a long reign of thirty-four years, Catherine died of a stroke on November 17, 1796. History knows her as Catherine the Great, a title she was offered during her lifetime and rejected. I leave it to posterity to judge impartially what I have done she said at the time and Catherine has done well. Domestically, She dealt with niggard revolts, pretenders, and noble opposition. Abroad, she increased Russias territory, prestige and international importance. Regardless of her much emphasized personal life and sexual relations, she deserves the title because she earned it.

Biography of Catherine the Great Essay examples -- Empress Russian His

Biography of Catherine the GreatOne of the most interesting, hard-working and powerful people to grace the pages of history during the eighteenth century was Catherine II, Empress of Russia. Historians have not always been so kind to her memory, and all too often one reads accounts of her private life, ignoring her many achievements. The stories of her love affairs have been overly misinterpreted and fundament be traced to a handful of French writers in the years immediately after Catherines death, when Republican France was fighting for its life against a coalition that included Russia. Catherine was born Sophia capital of Maine Frederika of Anhalt-Zerbst on April 21, 1729 in Stettin, then Germany, now Poland. Her father, Prince Christian Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst, was a high-ranking officer in the Prussian Army and a minor prince among the principalities in Germany. He married the much younger Princess Johanna of Holstein-Gottorp. Years before, Johannas brother Karl August of Hols tein-Gottorp had gone to Russia to marry the Princess Elizabeth Petrovna. However the Prince died of small pox, leaving Elizabeth heart-broken. Elizabeths sister, Anna gave birth to a son named peckerwood Ulrich, however tragedy once again struck as Annas died of tuberculosis three months after giving birth to shot. Peter, who eventually became Tsar Peter III, was the hardly surviving male descendent and the potentially heir to the throne of Russia after his father died. In November 1741, Elizabeth seized the throne with the help of the Imperial Guards, and formally declared her nephew Peter heir to the throne. Peter was now 14 years old, and it was time for him to find a bride. Elizabeth had always remembered the family of her dead fiance with fondness, and chose Sophie as the bride to be. The Empress Elizabeth seemed to have taken an exacting liking to Sophie at an early age. Sophie began to learn the Russian language and studied the Orthodox religion, which of course pleased the Empress. On June 28, Sophie was received into the Church in a great ceremony, and as a result changed her name to Catherine. Catherine was now the second highest-ranking lady in the country. Shortly after, Peter obtained measles, which started to show all the symptoms of small pox. Catherine be him to be a most pitiful creature, and it was with dismay that she looked towards her wedding day. The royal... ...h the many relationships she formed with men. Perhaps we misunderstand her many attachments. She loved to teach, and she had much knowledge to give. We can see from her many letters to Baron von Grimm, that she took pride in the education of her young protgs. Perhaps what many historians interpret as promiscuous behavior, was zipper more than her filling the lonely hours by sharing her vast knowledge with the young men she deemed worthy of her attention. She had long and lasting relationships with Orlov and Potemkin, and it seems that she was capable of being folding and devoted. Russia owes her much. After a long reign of thirty-four years, Catherine died of a stroke on November 17, 1796. History knows her as Catherine the Great, a title she was offered during her lifetime and rejected. I admit it to posterity to judge impartially what I have done she said at the time and Catherine has done well. Domestically, She dealt with peasant revolts, pretenders, and noble opposition. Abroad, she increased Russias territory, prestige and supranational importance. Regardless of her much emphasized personal life and sexual relations, she deserves the title because she earned it.

Bureaucracy and Public Policy

In most situations of dealing with presidential term, people often find themselves experiencing communication with street- take aim bureaucrats who, despite of their comparatively low position, in many slipway define the persons further well-being. Street-level bureaucrats have a direct influence on the number of people participating in humankind programs, and its them who determines what number of people is going to receive certain benefits, or participate in some programs. This, their final decisions become vital for certain groups of society.The communication which occurs amongst bureaucrats and people in such situations creates the cosmos policies which all the citizens experience when dealing with government. A in truth(prenominal) important issue concerning bureaucracy still remains agreement the mechanism of decision-making by street-level-bureaucrats, for it appears a much more difficult problem than it seems. As Brehm and Gates state, despite a large number of literat ures sources on the story of decision-making by bureaucrats, it still remains uncertain what real reasons influence their behavior 1.Due to the complexity of decision-making by street-level bureaucrats, opposite approaches have been suggested towards this matter. Various authors suggest their own solutions of the problem. The offset printing approach is connected with economics, while the other one deals with public administration and organization theory. According to the behavioral theory of choice, bureaucratic decisions argon the function non only of rational decision-making, but as well of all the variables which might influence the decision-making in the process.This can occur in situations when cognitive abilities of decision-makers fail them in the situation of uncertainty, and they become unable to make rational decisions. One of the main economists who have carried out the research of decision-making by bureaucracy were Brehm and Gates in their construct Working, Shirk ing, and Sabotage Bureaucratic Response to a Democratic humans, and Michael Lipsky Street Level Bureaucracy Dilemmas of Individuals in Public Services. John Brehm and Scott Gates in their work were dealing with the problem of the types of bureaucratic decisions.As far as authors have found out, the decisions which the bureaucrats make are divided into 3 categories working, shirking, and sabotage, which are very different in their descriptions. The main criteria is the matching the supervisors goals by the street-level bureaucrats in their decisions. In the category of working, the bureaucrats completely answer the goals which their supervisors put in front of them, and this is the most economical decision-making for them.In the case of shrinking, the bureaucrats direct some of their efforts towards recreation or any other activities which have nothing to do with the goals set for them by the supervisors. The category of sabotaging is the to the lowest degree efficient because in this case the bureaucrats choose the goals which completely differ from the goals which their supervisors set for them, and that is why they can often fail to get the outcome which the supervisors would like them to achieve 1.According to the analysis of the mentioned categories, Brehm and Gates come to the conclusion that in many cases its impossible for supervisors to coordinate the actions of street-level bureaucrats, and thus the public policy which they carry out on a high level might appear very different from the policy which is actually provided on the refuse levels in which the actual interactions of people with government occur.It means that the efficiency of the government policy becomes much lower in the case of street-level bureaucrats shirking and sabotaging because they dont achieve the goals set for them by higher(prenominal) officials. The connection between the bureaucrats of higher and lower levels does exist, but its much weaker in reality than it appears in t heory, so many decisions might simply not reach the lower level.As far as the empirical evidence shows, the main argument in decision-making by street-level officials lies not in the instructions which they get from the pass away but from their own preferences, or the preferences which other bureaucrats have. However, here lies the crucial point of the analysis lower-level bureaucrats have their own interests which they want to follow, but those interests turn out very close to the interests of high-level officials, and thus the actual public policy which is provided in the country becomes very close to the policy which was elaborated in the high level of government.This means that according to Brehm and Gates, by understanding the policy-preferences of the bureaucrats, we are able to predict the decisions they will make in different situations. Michael Lipsky in his Street-Level Bureaucracy Dilemmas of Individuals in Public Services also investigates the problems of bureaucrats be havior in relation to their customers, and decision-making by bureaucrats of low level in relation to the instructions they get from higher officials.According to the author, the mentioned issues are very important because in delivering policy street-level bureaucrats make decisions about people that affect their life chances. 2 Michael Lipsky defines one of the main reasons of the importance of bureaucrats behavior in the fact that they runaway a critical role in regulating the degree of contemporary conflict by virtue of their role as agents of social control. Citizens who receive public benefits interact with public agents who require certain behaviors of them 2.When investigating the main aspects of bureaucrats decision-making, Michael Lipsky believes in rational decisions of bureaucrats There is every reason to think that the general evaluations of social cost that inform the society will also inform the decisions of street-level bureaucrats in the absence of strong incentiv es to the contrary 2. Unlike Brehm and Gates, Michael Lipsky focuses not on the relationship of higher and lower level bureaucrats but on the importance of discretion in this matter.If Brehm and Gates tend to analyze the main categories of bureaucrats decision-making through the prism of their working, shrinking, and sabotaging categories, Michael Lipsky devotes his attention to the analysis of the prerequisite of discretion in making decisions. He finds the main reasons of that in the fact that street-level bureaucrats cannot learn by heart all the instructions which they were given and carry them everywhere, or decide every matter in the same way not regarding the difference of cases, or not to take into consideration a personal feeling of a person.The discretion is very necessary in order to carry out the right decision because only the extra official investigating the particular case can make the right decision based on his knowledge of instructions and his general stamp. In case of following his personal impression of interaction with a client, the bureaucrat doesnt simply sabotage or shrink, but makes the only right decision in the particular case. Michael Lipsky argues that there are some practices which commonly contribute to routine control of clients.One of them is that clients are separated from the officers by certain desks in order to minimize the personal conflict. There are no comfortable sofas in such places, either. Another practice is isolating one client from another one for them not to know what is going on with others in the same position. Its also important to mention that street-bureaucrats carry out special sanctions for those who disobey the order of the procedure. The investigations have shown that its impossible to stop the general criteria for decision-making by street-level bureaucrats.Brehm and Gates investigate the subject from the point of view of interactions between higher and lower level officials in the general outcome of the public policy, and argue that at the end, the preferences of the officials turn out the same. Michael Lipsky makes a point that discretion is very important in decision-making, and the influence of higher officials and instructions is minimized in this situation. Bibliography. 1. John Brehm and Scott Gates. Working, Shirking, and Sabotage Bureaucratic Response to a Democratic Public. 2. Michael Lipsky. Street-Level Bure

A study of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy Essay

1)We could firstly look at the arguments that would justify a company in putting its first loyalty and moral indebtedness to its owners as a priority. One of those arguments is the sh areholder theory, which states that the primary responsibility of a firm is to maximise the wealth of its shareholders (Friedman, 1962). As Friedman (1970 in Moore 1999) then proceeded to argue, he claimed that society would crystallise as a whole if businesses were left to do what they do best, create wealth.This argument could also be strengthened by considering the principle of egoism. Egoism, as delimitate by Baier (1990), expounds that an action is rational if and only if it maximizes ones self-interest.In contemplating the concentrateing propositions for a company to owe its first loyalty and moral responsibility to its employees and local community who are affected by its operations, we first examine the corresponding view on shareholder theory which is the stakeholder theory where the stakeh older framework places shareholders amongst the six-fold stakeholder groups that managers must involve in their decision-making process (Clarkson, 1995 Donaldson and Preston, 1995) where stakeholder groups would include internal, external and environmental constituents who can place demands on the firm (Ruf et al., 2001).A moral theory that could support this view is the ethical theory of W.D. Ross in which he dictates 7 prima facie duties that each person may bear at any one time. In this object lesson, a company has a duty of fidelity to its owners to act in their interest as well as the duty of nonmaleficence to its employees and the local community. In deciding which duty is more important we can turn to Kantian Ethics and the ethic of care. The second reformulation of the categorical imperative says that we should (a)ct in such a musical mode that you treat humanityalways..as an end and never simply as a means (Thomas, 2010).Following that, the duty of fidelity will lose pri ority to the separate as the former may require the company to treat humans as a means to an end. Finally, the ethic of care asks that we care for the well-being of those who are dependent on us (Shaw, Barry, Sansbury, 2009).Therefore, a company should owe its first loyalty and moral responsibility to its employees and the local community who are affected by its operations as they are dependent on the company for their safety. 2)The first reformulation of the categorical imperative in Kantian Ethics conveys the idea of treating others how one would insufficiency to be treated by others (Thomas, 2010). By natural logic, this entails the concept of all humans being equal and by that extension the differing economic circumstances of an Indian worker should not be sufficient ground to award a lower compensation. 3)Union Carbide USA may have stated their legal rights as a moral justification to use the forum non conveniens. They may also have utilised the concept of egoism as another j ustification, in that having the case judged in India would be beneficial to themselves.Reference ListBaier, K. (1991), A Companion to Ethics, Blackwell Reference, Oxford Clarkson, M. (1995), A stakeholder framework for analyzing and evaluating corporate social performance, Academy of Management Review, vol.20, no.1, pp.92-117 Dierksmeier, C. (2013), Kant on Virtue, Journal of Business Ethics, vol.113, no.4, pp597-609 Donaldson, T., Preston, L.E. (1995), The stakeholder theory of the corporation concepts, evidence, and implications, Academy of Management Review, vol.20, no.1, pp.65-91 Friedman, M. (1962), Capitalism and Freedom, University of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL Kant, I. (1966)The Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysics of Ethics, trans. O. Manthey-Zorn, Appleton-Century-Crofts, New York Moore, G. (1999), Tinged shareholder theory or whats so special about stakeholders?, Business Ethics A European Review, vol.8, no.2, pp117-127Ruf, B.M., Muralidhar, K., Brown, R.M., Janney , J.J., Paul, K. (2001), An empirical investigation of the relationship between change in corporate social performance and financial performance a stakeholder theory perspective, Journal of Business Ethics, vol.32, no.2, pp.143-56 Thomas,L.C. (2010), Lying and Deception Theory and Practice, Oxford University Press, Oxford Shaw, W.H., Barry, V., Sansbury, G. (2009), Moral Issues In Business, Cengage skill Australia

Notes on American Literature Essay

Important figures Sir Walter Raleigh ? traveler, Elizabeths I lover, poet, s oldishier, died in Tower of London. A k at presentn incline writer, poet, courtier and explorer. He was responsible for establishing the second English colony in the saucily adult male (after risingfoundland was established by Sir Humphrey Gilbert nearly i year previously, venerable 5 1583) on June 4, 1584, at Roanoke Island in present-day North Carolina. When the third flak at circumscribetlement failed, the ultimate fate of the colonists was never authoritatively ascertained. deception Winthrop ?governor of Massachusetts. led a group of English puritans to the parvenue World, joined the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 and was elected their offset printing governor on April 8, 1630. Between 1639 and 1648 he was voted out of governorship and re-elected a total of 12 cartridge holders. Although Winthrop was a respected political figure, he was criticized for his obstinacy (stubborn) regarding t he formation of a general fictionalization in 1634. Calvins deflect theory of predestination, limited redemption ego trials to find destiny the only hope was faith in God.Gods belovedwill ? irresistible forgiveness faith makes everyone good unless good deeds without faith dont perish one should follow their destiny, ex. suit a farmer, following destiny will make you victorful, (wealthy) hardly you shouldnt dont spend property, invest it the holy act of making money for God Puritans were waiting for signs, they read ? books to read (the Bible), interpreted it, interpreted history in their own, Puritan way. Anything could be a sign (weather conditions, Indian attacks, diseases, famine, etc. ). Puritan faithgrim, no paintings, no music sermons were highly important as they interpreted the Bible Michael Wigglesworth (1631-1705) wrote The Day of Doom (1662) his poem represents puritan thought of the time. galore(postnominal) a(prenominal) of the puritans memorized it and utilize it to get people back into the church. They used it to teach children and lingering adults. This was the low gear best seller, even though this term wasnt used yet. It describes the Day of Judgment and the sentencing to punishment in hell of sinners and of infants who died originally baptism.Samuel Danforth (1626-1674) In 1670, he was invited to give the annual election sermon to the General Assembly, which was afterwards printed as A Brief Recognition of invigorated-Englands Errand into the Wilderness (about annuling nature into civilization) and is regarded as one of the finest examples of the jeremiad form jeremiad sermons explained things form the Bible, created context, it said that future is glorious because we give the sack be better, improve ourselves History interpretations Cotton Mather (1663-1728).Magnalia Christi Americana (about religious development of Massachusetts, and former(a) nearby colonies in New England from 1620 to 1698) the English title was The Ecclesiastical History of New England (1702) he also wrote descriptions of the Salem Witch Trials, in which he criticizes nearly of the methods of the court and attempts to distance himself from the event account of the escape Hannah Dustan, one of the most famous to captivity narrative scholars his complete catalogus of all the students thatgraduated from Harvard College, and story of the mental institution of Harvard College itself and his assertions that Puritan slaveholders should do more to convert their slaves to Christianity made a heritage, typological approach 08. 10. 2007 spectral texts sermons ? instruments of communication betwixt the minister and the people theological thesis chronicles ( diachronic) Mary Rowlandson (1635-7 ? 1678) She was a colonial American char, who wrote a vivid description of the seven weeks and 5 days she spent living with Native Americans.Her short book, A Narrative of the Captivity and Restoration of Mrs. Mary Rowlandson (1682), is con sidered a seminal work in the American literary genre of captivity narratives. The root phase of heroic period ? first 30 years, after that a serious problem occurred? experience of conversion, but not everyone did it so what to do with their children? 1662 ?Halfway Covenant (by Senate in Boston) ? salvation is heredity even if they didnt experienced it. 17th degree centigrade was more flexile what led to great religious revival in the US, literary phenomenon, outburst of religious emotions ?thus texts. George Whitefield ? a rhetorician, preacher, appealed to American people, triggered religious revival.The Great Awakening (1735 ? 1750) ill-advised movement, they considered themselves as only trus tworthy Puritans but they were considered almost heretical movement, their enthusiasm had negative connotations, people thought they should be more rational leaders Jonathan Edwards who wrote a fire-and-brimstone sermon entitled Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God (1741), he believed in Protestant dogma, he precious people to experience real conversion, was against dinner gownsermons, he had a hypnotic way of teaching, appealing to emotions, he was forced to move and live in wilderness, died of smallpox.He was an active philosopher, try to combine old religion with Lockes new approach to religion. the movement (the Great Awakening) was the last significant moment to regain control by Puritans Edwards vs. Franklin ? they lived in the same time, reason competing with the old heritage Franklin was born in Boston and he wanted to move to Philadelphia ? city of enlightenment, Quakers, city owned by William Penn. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) Autobiography (written in 1771 1790)-Learning model behavior, proposed model human being, he would respond to the beauty of the world, and nature as a living presence of God, story of narrators pass off from Boston to Philadelphia, devoted himself to common good, he made success count most (financial in your own eyes and pr estige in others eyes) -12 commandments, its good to imitate Jesus and Socrates (although Socrates was a pagan and a suicider) Poor Richards Almanac -was a yearly almanack publish by Benjamin Franklin, who adopted the pseudonym of Poor Richard or Richard Saunders for this purpose. The publication appeared continuously from 1732 to 1758.It was a best seller for a pamphlet published in the American colonies print runs reached 10,000 per year. Franklin, the American inventor, statesman, and publisher, achieved success with Poor Richards Almanack. Almanacks were very popular books in colonial America, with people in the colonies using them for the mixture of seasonal weather forecasts, practical household hints, puzzles, and other amusements they offered. Poor Richards Almanack was popular for all of these reasons, and also for its extensive use of wordplay, with many examples derived from the work surviving in the contemporary American vernacular.Addressed to farmers (almanacs), use able information about farming, weather, astronomy, moral advice, many proverbs, (for example God helps those who help themselves what is opposite to Puritan philosophy), Do good papers, colonies literature.Franklin developed practical procedure of self improvement day by day and step by step to be thoroughly rational human being. political literature ? debate between Federalists and anti-Federalists Americans identified with Ancient Rome, thats why the Declaration was born. The creators were educated, they read Greek, Roman works, developed sense of public virtue, conflict with the British Crown.Locke, Milton ? inspired colonies to develop political theory to sewer the ties with the Crown + no taxation without representation Thomas Paine (1737-1809) in 1774 ? came to America as an old man, in 1776 he published Common sense, an anti-British book about Britain illegal financial abuse, appealed to Americans self-confidence, enough to be independent, to shape their destiny by determin ation, stamina, brains etc. The document denounced British rule and, through its immense popularity, contributed to impact the American Revolution.Hartford Wits (also called the Connecticut Wits) A group of American writers centered around Yale University and flourished in the 1780s and 1790s. Mostly graduates of Yale, they were conservative federalists who attacked their political opponents with satirical verse. Members include Joel Barlow, Timothy Dwight IV, David Humphreys, tail end Trumbull, Lemuel Hopkins, Richard Alsop, and Theodore Dwight. Works produced by the group include The Anarchiad (published in the New Haven Gazette from 1786? 1787) The Political Greenhouse (Connecticut Courant, 1799)The Echo (American Mercury, 1791? 1805) John Trumbull (1756-1843) believed in poetics, aesthetics, heroic couplet, satire. Member of a group of artists who painted important American historical events, Trumbull had an insiders affect of the War, serving as a colonel in the Continental Army and aide to Gen. Washington in the American Revolution The Progress of Dullness (1772-1773) n attack in three poems on educational methods of his time (three parts 1. adventures of Tom Brainless, sent to college, he learns the art of preaching, 2.Dick Hairbrain, a town fop, the son of a wealthy farmer, ridiculous in dress, empty of knowledge, but profound in swearing and cheap infidelity 3. Miss Harriet Simper, slender female education, formerly in vogue, and the life of the coquette) Timothy Dwight (1752-1817) continued Wigglesworth tradition The subjugation of Canaan (pub. 1785) ? ambitious epic in eleven books, about George Washington & war of independence Greenfield Hill (1794) descriptive poem about small New England town, turned by Dwight into ideal place to live, with common wellbeing, where people instruct care of education, etc.Its also a historical poem, about peacock (Indian tribe) war and massacre of Indians Travels in New England and New York (1820-1822) huge publication, sort of a tourist guide, covers areas of Southern New England. He loved the place and wanted to commemorate it. Joel Barlow (1754-1812) graduate of Yale, he died in Zarnowiec in Poland of pneumonia while he was on his journey to the Emperor in France Poem, Spoken at the Public head start at Yale College (1781) ? becoming American diplomat Barlow witnessed French return to France after the war The Vision of capital of Ohio (1787)?poem about future glory of America, Columbus visited by an Angel in prison (like in Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius where the author is visited by incarnation of philosophy parallel of Columbus) 1807 ? Barlow changed his religious, political option, became partisan of the French Revolution 1st American poem ? Barlows first attempt Phillis Wheatley (1753-1784) black slave woman from Senegambia, purchased by Boston Whitley (sort of philanthropist). She managed to learn English, extremely gifted girl, learnt to read (Milton, Homer), write. S he was allowed to study, learn Latin.She started to write good poetry, praised by George Washington, but Jefferson didnt like her poetry ? point of controversy. She expressed sort of gratitude, makes references to Greek poetry, antiquated Rome, neo-classical poetry, giving a testimony that she decided to adopt, make her way to elite, in England she was a well known poet. She died young. 15. 10. 2007 Michel Guillaume (also known as Hector Saint John de Crevecoeur) (1735? 1813) French-American writer, fought on the French side in the French and Indian War, then moved to New York State, becoming a naturalized citizen.After travels through mingled colonies, he settled on a farm in Orange Co, New York. wrote a number of essays and books which portrayed life in the New World Letters from an American Farmer (1784) where he describes conditions on the frontier, says that in America men are free, its a picturesque, natural country of liberty. Sketches of the 18th century America ? slaves, animals, community, style of slavery practice in the South, American farmers are not happy because of the lies of Independence. Early American legends had to postulate with a large add of English novels. They were also fiction and lies. SENTIMENTAL originalSWilliam Hill chocolate-brown (1765-1793) The Power of Sympathy (1789) ? first American novel written by first American novelist. Controversial for its time, displays the themes of seduction, betrayal, and incest. Its a moral novel written in letters. Its against immoral behavior, sort of educational guide against seduction. Plot written in correspondence several letters between friends and lovers. two young people fall in love, but in fact theyre brother and sister. They woman kills herself because she had fallen in love with her own brother and then the man devastated commits suicide. Susanna Haswell Rowson (1762-1824)Charlotte Temple (1791) first American bestseller ? seduced young lady gives a birth to a child, Lucy, th en dies. Successful novel but Susanna didnt make money for it as the novel was published illegally. It is characterized by emphatic moralism and melodramatic language, the idea that women should take care of each other. Written to protect young women from the pain of social rejection, includes theme of seduction and betrayal. Samuel Richardson (1689-1761) Clarissa, or, the History of a Young Lady (1748) epistolary novel, tells the tragic story of a heroine whose quest for virtue is continually thwarted by her family.It is commonly cited as the longest novel in the English language. Clarissa is a beautiful and virtuous young lady whose family has become very wealthy only in recent years and is now eager to become part of the aristocracy. Her relatives attempt to force her to marry a rich but heartless man against her will and, more importantly, against her own sense of virtue. Desperate to remain free, she is tricked by a young gentleman of her acquaintance, Lovelace, into escaping with him. up to now, she refuses to marry him, longing ? unusual for a girl in her time ? to live by herself in peace.Lovelace, in the meantime, has been trying to go down a fake marriage all along, and considers it a sport to add Clarissa to his long list of conquests. However, as he is more and more impressed by Clarissa, he finds it difficult to keep convincing himself that truly virtuous women do not exist. The continuous pressure he finds himself under, combined with his growing passion for Clarissa, drives him to extremes and last he rapes her.Clarissa manages to escape from him, but becomes dangerously ill. When she dies, however, it is in the full consciousness of her own virtue, andtrusting in a better life after death. Lovelace, tortured by what he has done but still unable to change, dies in a duel with Clarissas cousin. Clarissas relatives finally realise the misery they urinate caused, but discover that they are too late and Clarissa has already died. Pamela, or Vi rtue Rewarded (1740) is an epistolary novel.It tells the story of a maid named Pamela whose master, Mr. B. , makes unwanted advances towards her. She rejects him continually, and her virtue is eventually rewarded when he shows his sincerity by proposing an equitable marriage to her.In the second part of the novel, Pamela attempts to accommodate herself to upper-class society and to build a successful birth with him.The story was widely mocked at the time for its perceived licentiousness and it inspired heat content Fielding (among many others) to write two parodies Shamela (1741), about Pamelas true identity and Joseph Andrews (1742), about Pamelas brother. Hannah Webster Foster (1758-1840) The Coquett, or, The History of Eliza Wharton (1797) is an epistolary novel. Published anonymously until 1866, 26 years after Websters death. It was one of the best-selling novels of its time.The novel is a fictionalized account of the story of Elizabeth Wharton, the daughter of a clergyman who died after giving birth to a stillborn, illegitimate child at a roadside tavern. Writers and preachers of the day blamed her demise on the fact that she read romance novels, which gave her improper ideas and turned her into a coquette. Foster responded with The Coquette, which provided a more sympathetic impersonation of Wharton and described the difficulties faced by middle-class women. Tabitha Tenney (1762-1837) Female Quixotism (1801) ? the heroine goes mad, she has a strange idea of love (all men are the heroes of romances).She had some candidates but she doesnt like them. The book is rather a parody. The woman cant get married, she makes wrong choices, rejects good man and accepts the dishonest ones. HORROR STORIES ? THE GOTHIC NOVEL Ann Radcliffe (1764 1823) pioneer of the gothic novel. English writer. The Mysteries of Udolpho (1794) follows the fortunes of Emily St. Aubert who suffers, among other misadventures, the death of her catch, supernatural terrors in a gloomy ca stle, and the machinations of an Italian brigand. Often cited as the archetypal Gothic novel, Charles B. Brown (1771 1810).he wanted to be professional writer but people didnt want to read him. He quitted and became a political writer. He was the first American gothic writer. Wieland, or, the Transformation (1798) ? Theodore Wieland is master of a landed estate, which he has inherited from his father, an immigrant from Germany. Wieland Senior was a man of strange inclinations who, having built a temple on a hillock in the grounds, devoted to his own idiosyncratic religion, later dies mysteriously of spontaneous combustion (samospalenie). Wieland inherits his fathers god-fearing disposition.However the rural idyll he shares with his wife, children, sister and best friend is shattered when he becomes prey to the trickery of Carwin a mysterious ventriloquist (brzuchomowca) who has moved to the area after leading an undercover life of deception in Europe. Under the influence of religi ous mania and Carwins trickery Wieland kills his wife and children as a notification of his obedience to a divine voice. In court he expresses no remorse for his deeds and later escapes from prison to attempt the life of his sister, in the beginning being stopped in his tracks by the command of a final divine voice, which in reality emanates from Carwin.Wieland then commits suicide. The story is told as a first person narrative by Wielands sister Clara. As the story proceeds her initial calm and rational disposition is sorely tried by the uncanny and bloody events of the story, which reduces her, by the end, to a state of near mania.Her relations with the deceiver Carwin are ambiguous, veering between attraction and repulsion as the story unfolds. Apparently the novel was based on the true story of a multiple murder which took place at Tomhannock, New York in 1781. Ormond or, the brain-teaser Witness (1799) ?about lady who kills her seducer with a penknife.The novel engages with m any of the periods popular debates about womens education, marriage, and the morality of violence, while the plot revolves around the Gothic themes of seduction, murder, incest, impersonation, romance and disease. Set in post-revolutionary Philadelphia, Ormond examines the prospects of the struggling nation by tracing the experiences of Constantia, a young virtuous republican who struggles to survive when her fathers business is ruined by a confidence man, and her friends and neighbors are killed by a yellow fever epidemic.Arthur Mervyn (1799) Arthur Mervyn suffers form yellow fever, discovered by Dr. Stevens who invites him home. Mr. Wortley comes over to Dr. Stevens, recognizes Arthur Mervyn, and reacts with extreme displeasure. Dr. Stevens demands an explanation. Mervyn begins to tell his story. This is the frame, nearly three quarters of the book bring Mervyns adventures up to this moment in time. Edgar Huntly or, Memoirs of a Sleep-Walker (1799) The story of a young man who sleepwalks each night and is a threat to himself and others, unable to control his baser passions.Set outside Philadelphia in 1787, the book is a metaphor for the founding of a new nation, but can be read on a literal level as an American Gothic novel. Placed in the middle of wilderness. Young man wakes up in a dark hotel room, he doesnt know how he got there, he has a tomahawk. Kills a painter and eats it raw. Eventually returns home. Isaac Mitchell (1835-1893) Alonzo and Melissa (1804) ? gothic castle on Long Island. Explanation that the castle was built by Puritans. ADVENTURE NOVELS Royall Tyler (1757-1826)The Algerine Captive (1797) about a Harvard-educated American schoolteacher turned doctor, who was captured by Barbary (the Algerians) pirates in 1788 and sold into slavery in the City of Algiers. Description of conditions in which black slaves were kept on ships. At the end the character returns to USA. The Contrast (1790) is an American play in the tradition of the English Restoration comedies of the seventeenth century it takes its cue from Sheridans The School for Scandal, a British comedy of manners that had revived that tradition a decade in front.Royall uses the form to satirize Americans who follow British fashions and indulge in British vices. Hugh Henry Brackenridge (1748-1816) Modern Chivalry Containing the Adventures of Captain John Farrago and Teague ORegan, His servant (1792) is a rambling, satirical American novel. The book is arguably the first important work of fiction about the American frontier and called to the West what Don Quixote was to Europe. a more thoroughly American book than any written before 1833. The model of modern chivalry was Don Quixote they travel all over US.Cultural change was in Boston or around Boston in 18th century. New cultural force ? Unitarianism. Dutch Bishop, rejected the dogma of the predestination, unificated the Great Trinity to one God Father. Unitarians believed that people can improve themselves without grace of God. New, much more optimistic model of human being began. Sermons ? people should show likeness to God by practicing virtues, trying to be good. Henry run through educated at Harvard College, Professor at Harvard, precipitating a controversy between Unitarians and more conservative Calvinists.He took part in the formation of the Harvard divinity fudge School and the establishment of Unitarianism there in the following decades, publishing his debates with eminent Calvinists in the 1820s. William Emerson In 1804, Emerson founded the Anthology Club, a Boston literary society, and wrote articles for the clubs The periodic Anthology. This publication was the forerunner of the North American Review, Americas leading literary journal, and the Clubs reading room led to the founding in 1807 of the Boston Athenaeum.Joseph Stevens Buckminster Upon his graduation, he became minister of the Brattle Street Church in Boston, and chop-chop launched an almost legendary caree r of eloquent preaching, biblical scholarship, and literary mathematical product which set the tone for the pattern of the minister as a man of letters. In 1801 he traveled to Europe and returned with books. He was the most brilliant particle of the Anthology Club, an early editor of the Monthly Anthology, and in 1811 was appointed Dexter Lecturer at Harvard where he occupied the first Chair in Scripture. Buckminsters influence on his contemporaries was striking.His mastery of the emerging New Criticism from German Biblical scholars led to his rational investigation of the Bible, subjecting its text to the same scrupulous academic investigation given other texts from antiquity. Founded in Boston in 1815, The North American Review (NAR) was the first literary magazine in the United States, and was published continually until 1940, when publication was suspended due to World War II. The Reviews first editor, William Tudor (1779-1830), and other founders had been members of Bostons Anthology Club, and launched The North American Review to foster a genuine American culture.In its first few years it was published poetry, fiction, and miscellaneous essays on a bi-monthly schedule, but in 1818 it became a quarterly with more focused contents intent on improving society and on elevating culture. The Review promoted the improvement of public education and administration, with reforms in secondary schools, sound professional training of doctors and lawyers, rehabilitation of prisoners at the state penitentiary, and government by educated experts.Its editors and contributors included such literary and political New Englanders as John Adams, George Bancroft, Nathaniel Bowditch, William Cullen Bryant, Lewis Cass, Edward T. Channing, Caleb Cushing, Richard Henry Dana, Alexander Hill Everett, Edward Everett, Jared Sparks, George Ticknor, Gulian C. Verplanck, Daniel Webster. 22. 10. 2007 Norton Anthology ? early times, complaining about American literature, being poor, inf erior to British, what should be done to improve Madame de Stael (1766-1817) quickly translated into English, pub. in New York as a French-speaking Swiss author living in Paris and abroad.She influenced literary tastes in Europe at the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries Walter Cherning ? in North American review, tried to apply Madames ideas to American context The Analectic ? literary magazine There was no a really popular, one author in American unknown for Europe (in literature) until Irving. Washington Irving (1783 1859) oneness of the first noted American authors to be highly acclaimed in Europe during his life time, Irving was a prolific author of fiction and non-fiction. He wrote numerous short stories, biographies, histories, and historys of his travels.His characters Ichabod Crane and Rip van Winkle are now icons of popular American culture, and many of Irvings works possess inspired adaptations to the stage and film. Washington, while born sickly, was a mischievous an d adventuresome young man, sneak out at night to attend plays and frustrating his pious parents, especially his father. He roamed the city and environs, dreaming of far-off placesdreams that were partly fueled by one of his favourite books, Daniel Defoes Robinson Crusoe. Travelling would become a life-long passion. Although he was not an avid student, he studied law and became a clerk.Suffering from ill-health off and on for many years, in 1804 Irving set sail from New York Harbour, the first of many trips abroad he was going to a spa in Bordeaux, France to treat a lung ailment. He learned French, made many friends, travelled through Europe. In 1806 he returned to America. with his brother William and James Kirke Paulding created a semi-monthly periodical World of New York to compete with the more sombre news publications of the day. While it was short-lived The Salmagundi Paper or, the Whim-Whams and Opinions of Laucelot Langstaff, Esq. And Others.(1809) was met with great success. The Jonathan Swift-like satire and tongue-in-cheek pokes at politics, culture, and society was to instruct the young, reform the old, crystalise the town, and castigate the age. The Salmagundi Papers (1809) satirical work by Washington Irving (under the pen name Diedrich Kinckerbocker), with the title being derived from the dish. The work is nowadays remembered especially for first popularizing the sobriquet Gotham for New York City. In a similar vein Irving composed his first novel, Knickerbockers History of New York (1809).A burlesque and comprehensive twine of fact and fiction, his History of New-York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty is narrated by Diedrich Knickerbocker and won Irving much acclaim at home and abroad. Irvings short stories, first printed in America under his pseudonym Geoffrey Crayon between the years 1819-20 were collected in The Crayon Papers and The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon. They contain two of Irvings most famous tale s Rip van Winkle and The Legend of Sleepy Hollow. These stories were wildly popular in America and soon too in Europe.His coterminous novel was Bracebridge Hall, or, The Humorists, A Medley (1822). Published under the pseudonym Geoffrey Crayon, centers on an English manor, its inhabitants, and the tales they tell. Interspersed with witty, evocative sketches of country life among the English nobility is the well-known tale The Stout Gentleman and stories based on English, French, and Spanish folklore, vividly recounted with Irvings inimitable blend of elegance and colloquial dash. They include Dolph Heyliger the story of a New Yorker who encounters a haunted house, ghosts, and a inhumed treasure.It was followed by Tales of a Traveller (1824), which Irving considered one of his finer works. A last experiment with fiction before he turned to the writing of history, biography, and adaptation of folktales. Arranged in four sections, the miscellany of short fiction reveals elements of c omedy and melodrama new to Irvings work. The first three groups of stories have a European background, while the final five stories, supposedly found among the papers of the late Diedrich Knickerbocker, are set in New York and feature pirates and buried treasure.In 1826 Irving moved to Madrid, Spain, where he set to writing his highly lauded The Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus (1828), Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada (1829), and Tales of the Alhambra (1832) rich compendium of tales, deftly interwoven with historical accounts and picturesque sketches, was assembled from Spanish and Moorish folklore, history, guidebooks, and anecdotes of Irvings experiences among the local residents.The forty-nine pieces range from stories based on Granadas colorful history to graceful vignettes of its contemporary scene, from romantic descriptions of the local architecture and terrain to medieval tales of the supernatural. Astoria Anecdotes of an enterprise beyond the Rocky Mountains ( 1836). . I have felt anxious to get at the details of their adventurous expeditions among the shell tribes that peopled the depths of the wilderness. It explores Irvings impressions from travels in Canada and America as guest of John Jacob Astors Northwest Fur Company.Irving expresses his sympathy to the displaced, and dispossessed savage Native American Peoples in such stories as Philip of Pokanoket, Traits of Indian Character, and Origin of the White, the Red, and the Black Men. first American Literary Account of the Wild West, surprised that his view is different from Ch. Brownings (who portrayed the Westerners as wild animals). Irving portrays them as human, describes buffalo hunting (exaggerated a bit as he describes himself hunting).Counts as the soonest literary description of the West. The Adventures of Captain Bonneville (1837) Drawing on Bonnevilles own journals, Washington Irving chronicles the exploits and adventures of Captain James Bonneville, one of the earliest e xplorers of the American West, detailing his various journeys with mountain man Joseph Rutherford Walker their discovery of Yosemite, Walker Pass, and the Bonneville Salt Flats and life among the Native Americans and trappers of the West.Irvings last finished work, something he had been working on for many years but kept putting aside for other more pressing projects is his Life of George Washington (1859). The Legend of Sleepy Hollow (1820) The story is set circa 1790 in the Dutch settlement of Tarry Town, New York, in a secluded glen called Sleepy Hollow. It tells the story of Ichabod Crane, a lanky schoolmaster from Connecticut, who competes with Abraham Brom Bones wagon train Brunt, the town rowdy, for the hand of 18-year-old Katrina Van Tassel, only daughter of a wealthy farmer.As Crane leaves a party at the Van Tassel home on an autumn night, he is pursued by the Headless Horseman, supposedly the ghost of a Hessian trooper who lost his head to a cannonball during some namel ess battle of the American Revolutionary War and who rides forth to the scene of battle in nightly quest of his head. Crane disappears from town, leaving Katrina to marry Brom Bones, who was to nip exceedingly knowing whenever the story of Ichabod was related. Rip Van Winkle (1819) The story of Rip Van Winkle is set in the years immediately before (the early to mid-1770s) and after the American Revolutionary War (the early to mid-1790s). Rip Van Winkle, a villager of Dutch descent, lives in a nice village at the foot of New Yorks Catskill Mountains. An amiable man whose home and farm suffer from his lazy neglect, he is loved by all but his wife. One autumn day he escapes his naggi.

History †Western Civilization Essay

Darwins view on natural selection is that man incessantly presents individual differences in all part of his body and in his mental faculties. These differences or variations seem to be induced by the same general causes, and to obey the same laws as with the lower animals. In both cases similar laws of inheritance prevail. Man tends to increase at a greater rate than his means of subsistence consequently he is occasionally subjected to a arch struggle for existence, and natural selection will have effected whatever lies within its scope.A succession of strongly-marked variations of a similar nature is by no means requisite slight fluctuating differences in the individual suffice for the work of natural selection not for any reason to suppose that in the same species, all parts of the organization tend to vary to the same degree. It may be assuring that the inherited effects of the long-continued use or neglect of parts will have done ofttimes in the same direction with natural s election.Modifications formerly of importance, though no longer of any limited use, are long-inherited. When one part is modified, some other parts change through the principle of correlation, of which we have instances in many curious cases of correlated monstrosities. Something may be attributed to the direct and definite action of the surrounding conditions of life, such as abundant food, heat or moisture and lastly, many characters of slight physiological importance, some and so of considerable importance, have been gained through sexual selection.The belief in God has often been advanced as not only the greatest, but the most utter(a) of all the trenchantions between man and the lower animals. It is however impossible to maintain that this belief is innate or instinctive in man. On the other debate a belief in all-pervading spiritual agencies seems to be familiar and apparently follows from a considerable advance in mans reason, and from a shut up greater advance in his faculties of imagination, curiosity and wonder.Darwins aware that the assumed instinctive belief in God has been used by many persons as an argument for His existence. But this is a rash argument, as one thus is compelled to believe in the existence of many cruel and malignant spirits, only a little more powerful than man for the belief in them is far more general than in a beneficent Deity. The idea of a universal and beneficent Creator does not seem to arise in the mind of man, until one has been elevated by long-continued culture.Darwins view on race talks about modifications acquired independently of selection, and due to variations arising from the nature of the organism and the action of the surrounding conditions, or from changed habits of life, no single pair will have been modified much more than the other pairs inhabiting the same country, for all will have been continually blended through free intercrossing. Since man attained to the rank of manhood, he has diverged int o distinct races, or as they may be more fitly called, sub-species.Some of these, such as the Negro and European, are so distinct that, if specimens had been brought to a natural scientist without any further information, they would undoubtedly have been considered by him as good and true species. Nevertheless all the races agree in so many idle details of structure and in so many mental peculiarities that these can be accounted for only by inheritance from a common progenitor and a progenitor thus characterized would probably deserve to rank as man.But it must not be supposed that the divergence of each race from the other races, and of all from a common stock, can be traced back to any one pair of progenitors.REFERENCEDarwin, C. (1874). The descent of man, and selection in relation to sex. new York A. L. Burt. Hart, M. (1992). The descent of man the origin of species. Retrieved August 15, 2006, from the Great Literature Book-Worm org Web sitehttp//www. book-worm. org/darwin-char les/the-descent-of-man/chapter-21. html

Let the Punishment Fit the Crime Essay

If you cant do the time dont do the crime or how about let the punishment forgather the crime. These two statements have been around for years. If someone commits a crime they should be punish but to what extent? Should similar crimes be dealt with the same? Such as if a person had a small amount of ganja for personal use in a car at school, or they had an ounce of marijuana in their vehicle in a school zone. Should the law treat these incidents the same? Or should they treat these cases differently? Some people believe you should be sentence to a mandatory jail term no matter what crime you commit.They feel this will deter people from committing crimes. Others feel criminals are doing excessively much time for mostly none violent criminal activity which put a strain on entire communities. This debate has been brewing for years. argon mandatory minimum sentences doing more than harm than good? The movement to establish mandatory minimum sentences for drug related offenses began i n the early 1950s and gained nerve impulse in the early 1970s (Carrillo, 2000). At this time the judge had the discretion of giving the defendant a mandatory sentence or a more lenient sentence. In 1986 the law was changed were as the judge lost the power to make a choice in the length of a sentence he or she could impose on an offender.They had to follow strict sentencing guidelines which some judges was even oppose to. The main reason for the mandatory minimum sentences during the earlier stages in the game was due to the growing drug trade. This was a losing effort by law enforcement to stop the trafficking of drugs into the United States. In the eyes of many this obviously didnt work. As time went on the drug trade became bigger and better with more sophisticated technics and more potent drugs.

Importance Of Chemistry Essay

Our entire universe is make up of matter which is constantly changing forms and evolving into another(prenominal) forms of energy. We use alchemy from the beginning of the day till its end, the toothpaste we use to brush our teeth is made of abrasives, fluoride, and detergents. These common household items contain batteries, which make them very chemically dependent. The purification our water by process of chlorination, dental cleanliness from toothpaste, sterilization, the control and the cure of disease are all a part of daily living discover and created by alchemy. These discoveries make up a major component for the protection of our health and hygiene and are vital for the future existence of mankind. Chemistry is the break up of science that deals with the identification of the substances of which matter is composed, of their properties and the ways in which they interact, combine, and change. The use of these processes to form new substances, understanding the importance of chemistry is essential to know the importance of chemistry in everyday life. Everything on earth is made up of chemicals you, your food, and the products you use in life such as soaps, perfumes etc. all are made up of chemicals.Life without chemicals is impossible. A number of changes that you observe are the result of chemical reactions like the rain, the change in the color of leaves, cleaning of any occurrence material in your house, all involve chemicals. You need to understand certain chemical reactions. When does your packet food expire? What disinfectants and repellents you should use to keep your house hale and healthy and so on. A guest (Jonathan Liu) stated I never knew that chemistry is applied to so many things in everyday life I knew that there would be a lot of math involved and just thought that we would be engageing science more in depth. Now that Ive read this, I am more interested in studying chemistry at school. Chemistry is important because it helps in exp loring things which are unusual to mankind. Chemistry is important because it explains the future behavior of plants and animals and all of us use chemicals directly or indirectly in our daily lives. We are using chemistry when we cook, when we wash, when we eat, when we get ready, when we play, when we think, as amatter of fact, we always use chemistry. Increasing the knowledge in chemistry is important if we want to improve our lifestyle on the daily.Chemistry is also important for the environment. When you are aware of the harming effects of the gases like carbon dioxide and methane as a result of the greenhouse effect, you can easily forge out solutions for the reduction of effects on the environment. If you go with a minimum knowledge of the importance use of chemistry you can help in saving(a) the environment to a large extent. Though chemistry is thought as complicated and a boring science subject, chemistry is responsible in explaining the terra firma you live in, apart from explaining cooking, cleaning, medicine and environment issues chemistry is in essence the study of everything. Understanding the basic chemistry is essential for all, but specializing in chemistry, make a career out of the subject is also interesting. Plenty of chemistry related high paying jobs are available today. All the medical students, physicists, geologists, nutritionists study chemistry. That the importance of chemistry will increase day by day and it is essential to understand the basic chemistry to properly conduct the activities of the daily life.

Poet’s emphasis Essay

Although metrical composition A contain a thematic unity further it is manifested that poets dialect remained on creating a homogeneous lyrical whole instead of developing the theme in an elaborative way and in an elevated poetical manner. There is ill-defined sentimentality that pervades the whole poem. The most important defect of the poem is that it takes into account a wide range of human roles in life and tried to stop this human experience into the ultimate reality of demise. In this attempt, poet fails to create a unifocal and forceful impact about death in the mind of the reader.Although the main though is not traditional or orthodox but poet does not present either philosophical facets, psychological impact or any other unmatched reflection about death. Furthermore, he is unable to manifest a great skill in making use of the arts and artifices of verse. So poem is an scurvy failure. Poet is unable to enjoy the visual delight of death or suffer from it pain and terror . He only changes from one role to another role with the distressing demise of the first. Personal Preferences Ranking Poem F Poem C Poem D Poem E Poem B Poem A Poem FThe theme is same as other poem ranked above but thematic expressions is the most important thing that elevates this poem above all other poems. Thematic expression manifested in a subtle and delicate way. So delicacy of thought mingles with height of literary expression. acute metaphorical attributions to seasons are another important feature of the poem. He does not rely on a single set of metaphors or symbol but he uses the financial symbols in the next quatrain to covey his message and skillfully relates it to the main theme of death and destruction.The most beautiful derivation of the poem is line 7 where he terminates the effect of death. He is of the view that by reproduction and regeneration, one can produce a replica of his own self, so death can not destroy him. He can conquer the death and destruction. He nce these off-spring(s) will make thee living. So poet has pitched the though at a higher level as compared with other poet and have utilized his language skills to create an effective expression to convey that style.Poet does not show any mystery or fascination about death. If death results in despair and terror, it also brings rest and peace. Poet negates both these conventional concept and gives a new idea that death does not terminate life if one wishes to. He can reproduce siblings like him and this is a continuation of his life. There is not magical abstract in the poem and everything is presented and represented in clear manner with the help of concrete imagery.

Local Development Planning in the Philippines

at the topical anaesthetic anaesthetic take place Areportby SherylI. Fernando Local organisations do not take the luxury d of eon to delay the instruction of their de own capabilities whic will each(prenominal)ow them to ch achieve their cherishe objectives. ed They should help them mselves and not slug while the rest of the world go by. st Local organizations he elping themselves is the essence of the home ru It is in addition the ule. cornerstone of democr ratic and just institutions. LOGODEF,1993 Local organizations in the Philippines imbibe th roots in the colonial constitution of Spain, heir which lasted in the Philippines for some 32 years. These three centuries down the stairs Spanish 27 g overnment were characterized by a highly ce entralized regime. The Spanish Governor General in Manila actually governed the res publicas and cities in the whole country. After Spain, the US d came in the early 1900s and Filippinized topical anaesthetic government administ ration. The last 50 years of the presend century saw several learnings towards de interchangeization. The Local Autonomy Act of 1959, the passage of the Barrio deal and the decentralization Act o of 1967 were all incremental internal legisla ations in response to the clamour for a self? rule concept. The Philippine Constitutions of 1972 and 1987 also significantly influenced the movement for semipolitical devolution.The most significant built-in provisions (Article 10 on Local Government) atomic number 18 the following s The Congress shall enact a topical anesthetic government code which shall provide for a more responsive and accountable local government structure instituted through a system of s decentralization with effective mechanisms of recall, initiative n and referendum allot among the different local government m, units their powers, responsibilities and resources and provide for the qualificati ions, election, appointment, removal, lines, salaries, power functions and duties of local officials and all rs, other matters relating to the organization and function of the r local units. The legislative initiative promoting local auto onomy was strongly abideed by academics and exoteric servants who spearheaded the nec cessary reforms in changing the structure and organization of local governments and includ advanced functions to enable local governments to ded quotation a changing environment. The strugg for decentralization that lasted more than 50 gle years culminated in the passage of the Loca Government recruit in October 1991.The Local al Government Code is a most comprehensiv document on local government touching on ve structures, functions and powers, including tax xation and intergovernmental relations. unescap. org AccordingtoPanadero (2008)thedece entralizationofgovernancewasinfluenced bylocalandinter subjectevents(see bit e1). HealsoaddedthatattheInter interior(a) Internat tionalEvents POSITIVE ? Technological Advances ? Global ization crisis ? Trade/ enthronisation liberalization ? Poverty focus flu) Political 3changesin administration EDSAII&III profitInsurgency Terrorism CharterChange PoliticalUncertainty NEGATIVE ?Episodes of world economical interim & economic ? travel oil prices ? Terrorism ? Heath problems (e. g. SARS, Eco onomic Boombu usteconomic growth/cr rises Liberaliza ation/ Deregular rization Policies RisingUr rbanization OFWDeployment Fiscal&d debtproblems DECENT TRALIZATION Social Persistentpoverty Lowerbudget allocation For kindservices Risinginequality cataclysms Figure1. Economic,Social&PoliticalEnvironme entintheLastYearsofDecentralization level, globalization has the most pervasive influence on the decentralization, which was hastened by trade and investment funds liberalization and proficient advances.On the Social Sector, there was a focus on the lessening of poverty on the Economic Sector, the pertly international issues such as terrorism had positive and neg ative impacts at the local level, while the economic scenario at the national level significantly shaped local emergence. The national government in the 1990 seek to upgrade local government by 0s delegating some express powers to local su ubdivisions and by patronageing(a) people to portionicipate in corporation affairs. Local auto onomy was balanced, however, against the train to ensure effective political and admin nistrative control from Manila, especially in those aras where communist or Muslim ins surgents were active. During Marcoss authoritarian years (1 1972? 86), a Ministry of Local Government was instituted to invigorate provincial, mu unicipal, and barangay governments.But, Marcoss real purpose was to establish lin of authority that bypassed provincial nes governments and ran straight to Malacanang. All local officials were beholden to Marcos, who could appoint or remove any provincial governor or town mayor. Those administrators who delivered the votes Marcos a sked for were rewarded with community learning funds to spend any way they liked. y After the Peoples Power Revolution, the new Aquino government decided to replace all the local officials who had functiond Marcos. Corazon Aquino delegated this task to her political ally, Aquilino Pimentel. Pimentel named officers in charge of local governments all across the nation. They served until the first local elections were held under the new constitution on January 18, 1988.Local officials elected in 1988 were to serve until June 1992, under the transitory clauses of the new constitution. thitherafter, terms of office were to be three years, with a three? term limit. Local government units (LGUs) argon territo orial political subdivisions of the Philippines that complicate provinces, cities, municipalities and barangays (the smallest political unit in the country). Because local government officials ar voted into power by the people, their primary re role is peoples welf ar. Their offic es argon the major institutions prudent for the e coordination, overseeing and monitoring of dev velopment upchucks at the local level.The devolution of significant powers and functions formerly held by national line agencies mmunity information and poverty alleviation in to LGUs made them powerful conduits for com the countryside. Among the responsibilities tr ransferred to the LGUs were agriculture, health, social services, environment and indispensable resources, maintenance of local understructure facilities (such as farm? to? market routes, bridges and irri igation) and others. Local legislative powers such as ending? making, resource allocation, rule? m making and enforcement of laws related to these powers were also delegated to LGUs. GovernorLiliaG. Pinedameetswithbarangayofficialsofflooded? municipalitiesintheprovinceassheinstructsthemtofurther intensifytheireffortsinensuringthewelfareandsafetyoftheirr respectiveconstituents. Board portionCris Garbo,Provincial SocialW elfareand victimisation magnater(PSWDO)ElizabethBayb bayan andAgricultureConsultantRoyImperialjointhe coming uponof thelocalofficials. (PhotobyJunJaso,Pampanga PIO) The planning mathematical operation in starts at the barangay level. Plans are lively by the Barangay Council, and because adopted by the Barangay information Council, composed of barangay y officials elected by the people (Figure 2). Gene erally, barangay officials have completed still the elementary levels of schooling, and have little or no training in development? related activities.Hence, barangay development plans usually consist only of lists of barfs that focus mainly c on the infrastructure facilities that are the most obvious and easiest to identify. Some communities do have better planning attend toe simply these are rare. es, Level National planningInstitutions NationalEconomicDevelopment Authority(NEDA),CentralOffice regional NEDA,RegionalOffice Provincial Provincial groomingand DevelopmentOffice(PP DO) municipal MunicipalPlanningand DevelopmentOffice(MPDO) Barangay Figure2. PlanningprocessandinstitutionsinthePhilippines BarangayCouncil/ Sangguniag Barangay Barangay development plans are submit tted to the Municipal Planning and Development Office (MPDO), which comes under the jurisdiction of the Office of the Mayor.The MPDO is in charge of planning activities at the municipa level. Generally, the MPDO consolidates the al shopping lists of projects and prioritizes them in accordance with the plans of the municipality. Before this consolidated plan bec comes the official Municipal Development Plan, it must first be adopted by the Municipal Develo opment Council. From the municipal level, plans are forwarded to the Provincial Planning and Development Office (PPDO) where they are again D consolidated and prioritized on the basis of the provinces own bad-tempered plans. e The provincial development plans are also reviewed by the Provincial Development Councils before adoption.They are then sub bmitted to the National Economic Development Authority (NEDA) Regional Office, which cons solidates all the provincial plans and prioritizes them, base on regional importance. The plans should also be reviewed by the Regional p Development Councils before adoption. The plans are then forwarded to the NEDA Central Office Inter? Cabinet Coordinating Committee for consideration, together with the priorities of f the confused government line agencies. Based on the national thrusts and priorities, the projects o that are selected are then consolidated and include in the National Medium? Term Development Plan. The Local Government Code (LGC) adult male ndates the LGUs with significant local planning functions.In token, Section 106 of the Code provides that each LGU shall have e comprehensive multi? sectoral development pla to be initiated by its development council and an approved by its Sanggunian. The institutional responsibilities for plan formulation, e financing and implementation are likewise clearly g, prescribe by the Code ed ? The Loc Development Plan (LDP) shall be prepared by the cal Local Development Council (LDC) P ? The LDP will be approved by the Sanggunian ? bills for the development plan shall be allocated by the Local Fin nance Committee (LCF) and ? The Loc Chief executive (LCE), together with the executive cal departm ments, will implement the development plan. This case study highlights the experience of undertaking a Priority e carrying out Partnership on incorporating fortuity danger impact assessments into the bend of new alleys in the Philippines, implemented by the National Disa aster Coordinating Council (NDCC) and surgical incision of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) with support from Asian misfortune Preparedness Cent (ADPC), UN internationalist Strategy ter for Disaster diminution (UN/I ISDR) and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). Towards Mainstreaming Disaster Risk decrease into th e Planning Process of Road grammatical construction Safer Roads A Priority Implementation Partnership between the National Disaster Coordinating Council and the Department of Public Works and Highways, Philippines Under the Regional Consultative Committee on Disaster Management (RCC) course of instruction on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Development in Asia Road Sector a antecedence for mainstreaming cataclysm risk lesseningBACKGROUND The Regional Consultative Committee (RCC) on Disaster Management under its course of instruction on Mainstreaming accident risk reduction into development (MDRD) have identified Roads and Infrastructure, Agriculture, Education, Health, Housing and financial Services as priority sectors to initiate mainstreaming adventure risk reduction . With the massive infrastructure development in Asia underpinned by the investment in highways, alleys and bridges, prioritizing the Road Sector is certainly a necessity. In the RCC which comprise s of heads of the National Disaster Management Offices of 26 Asian Countries, members had submitted expression of participation (EoI) to mainstream of hap risk reduction into particular sectors depending on the development priorities of their country.The National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) of the Philippines which is a member of the RCC expressed interest in taking-up MDRD into course sector in league with the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH), the agency responsible for national road construction in the country. Accordingly in the first quarter of 2006, the Priority Implementation Partnership for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into the planning process of road construction in the Philippines was started by NDCC and DPWH. The partnership was technologically supported by the Asian Disaster Preparedness inwardness (ADPC) with financial support from UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR) through Swedish International Development C ooperation Agency (SIDA). ource purpose Philippine Vulnerability to Environmental Disasters Manila Observatory/Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) Floods and earthquakes make the road system in the Philippines prone to landslides, road slips, embankment scouring and other sediment related disasters. Roads are often closed for several days when hit by such disasters causing disruption in transportation services that affects the access of passengers, goods and services. The impact of flooding and typhoons in creating havoc to the countrys deliverance as well as to damage to property is recognized in the Medium Term Philippine Development Plan of 2001-2004 and accordingly the DPWH has also aligned its policies and strategies.Priority Implementation Partnership ( collide with) a Process towards mainstreaming disaster risk reduction Similar to other countries, the Road sector in the Philippines also works in close collaboration with various government departments l ike Planning, Finance, Environment and Local Government. While the development of national roads (30,000 km of length) is under the jurisdiction of DPWH, the remaining road network (172,000 km of length) falls under the concern of local government units. In addition, road projects are based on area development plans produced by the National Economic Development Agency (NEDA) and the Regional Development Councils (RDC). Similarly the feasibility reports prepared for each road project undergoes an environmental and a social impact assessment led by the Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR).In order to mainstream disaster risk reduction, further collaboration is wantd with NDCC and technical agencies responsible for producing hazard information related to natural disasters like the Philippines Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (PHIVOLCS), Philippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and astronomic Services politics (PAGASA). A MULTI-AGENCY TECHNICAL WORKING GROUP TA KES THE LEAD With this understanding, the buck formed a technical work group of the NDCC at the beginning with multi-agency membership to steer the process of implementation of mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into the planning process of road construction. procedure of road planning and identifying the windows of opportunity to clear disaster risk reduction.Accordingly the scope of activities was detailed as follows Documentation of existing procedure for development of road projects with respect to hazards Documentation of sums of pre feasibility/ feasibility report of road projects in the country over the past 20 years Analysis of past damage to road infrastructure Identification of limited steps that can be taken for incorporating hazard considerations in project development and approval process List of future(a) priority projects for construction of roads in the Philippines. PIP Technical Working congregation comprises Chairperson Planning service, DPWH C o-chairperson Planning division, NDCC Members Bureau of research and standard, DPWH Bureau of design and bridge division, DPWH Philippines Institute of genteel Engineer Department of Environment and Natural Resources Philippines Institute of Volcanology and SeismologyPhilippines Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration Asian Disaster Preparedness Center The technical running(a) group met frequently over the PIP implementation period to look at the mentioned activities above and developed the final report which details recommendations for desegregation DRR into the planning process of new road construction in the Philippines. BROADER CONSULTATION PIP LOOKED INTO The technical working group engaged in consultation and decided on the following activities for initiating mainstreaming. Since it was realized that the ultimate aim of mainstreaming could only be achieved by bringing change in the entire system, which road projects are developed, designed, cons tructed and maintained.Hence this particular partnership would emphasize on understanding the existing The findings of the PIP were shared during a national workshopheld in February 2007, in which a wide range of stakeholders particpated including the Government, technical agencies, UN agencies and the Asian Development Bank. The recommendations were discussed in detail and future steps were identified. The protrusion Development of a typical infrastructure project in DPWH follows a cyclic process consisting of four phases Project identification, Project breeding, Project implementation and Project operation and evaluation. consolidated form, with limited access to detailed report on remedy and their corresponding costs. Also of equal importance is to bench mark hazard intensities with their Return periods/Damages.This is oddly difficult due to escape of updated topographic maps at 15,000 or higher resolution, a sparse network of hazard monitoring stations ( seismal and flood) as well as short monitoring period and limited processed entropy on hazards. The following key documents were placid during the project to conduct the analysis timeworn Terms of Reference for Strategic Environment estimate for Plans and Programmes Standard Report hammerat for Strategic Environment Assessment for Plans and Programmes Sample of Damage Report DPWH District Office Sample of Consolidated Damage Report by NDCC Sample of Bridge condition Inspection Form Sample of Pre- Feasibility and Feasibility Reports of Road projects starting 1984 List of future projects of DPWHAfter the projects are identified, feasibility studies are conducted which includes investigations and analysis to determine the extent and degree of desirability of a project against technical, economic, social, environmental, financial and operational aspects. As part of this project, sample feasibility reports over last 20 years were analysed in terms of content and it was realized that the structure of the report largely depends on the source of funding of the project. Typically due to lack of funding for construction of national road projects, DPWH administers a basic feasibility study, but for foreign-assisted projects the assessment process is more in-depth and extensive.However, it was noted that post 2000, the feasibility reports do tend to include a section on Review of hazard specific threats on road sections though it is primarily limited to protecting the road segments from geological hazards such as landslides and debris fall. In addition, DPWH feasibility study includes an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The EIA report structure considers the impact of hazards by defining an environmentally critical area of the project rank where it is frequently visited by the natural hazards. However, it does not explicitly provide details on how to address natural hazard vulnerability and risks to infrastructure and the consequent impact from its damage or failure.Similarly, Cost-benefit analysis cover only the planned use of the facility and does not factor in other costs (risk based cost) arising from authority damage or possible failure of the structure to function to a certain event. Assessment of damages to roads affected by a natural disaster is carried-out by DPWH at the district level. There is no fixed format followed for collecting information needed for the assessment and the reports are directly sent to NDCC for the preparation of an overall disaster assessment report. Hence, it becomes difficult to trace these records at the regional or central offices of the DPWH. Similarly the damage information of past disasters available from NDCC is in a It is also realized that since mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction involves a broad range of stakeholders, interrelated plans and programs, disaster risk reduction concerns need to be linked with ongoing projects of DPWH such as The earthquake rehabilitation program and similar seismic vulnerability assessments DPWH national roads improvement and management program, Phase II DPWH road maintenance investment programs The study on the nationwide flood risk assessment and the flood mitigation plan for the selected areas in the Philippines Technical Assistance for risk assessment and management Benefit monitoring and evaluation of selected roads, Phase II, ADB aptitude Building Study on risk management for sediment related disaster on selected national highways Similarly close linkage needs to be established with the ongoing project of NDCC in partnership with UNDP on Hazard Mapping and Assessment for effective community-based disaster risk management (READY). KEY FINDINGS DPWH adopts a basic one size fits all format for feasibility studies of road projects that does not specifically require assessment of disaster risks. During detailed design, disaster risk reduction aspects are incorporated into the project if required. in general national budgets do not provi de funds for surveys and investigations at the feasibility study demonstrate, and it is therefore anomalous for disaster risk reduction measures to be incorporated at early stages of project preparation. Externally funded projects are prepared to higher standards, particularly in relation to environmental assessments (where disaster risk aspects are depict if required by the particular agency) and resettlement planning.There is uneven application of building codes and design standards between national and local roads. Absence of one fixed format for collecting information on damage to roads and bridges from natural hazards prepared by district-level offices. Hydrological data are available for major river basins in the Philippines but these information have not uniformly been processed to provide flow/stage relationships for different make it periods, which could be used for road design. Learning The key to successful desegregation of disaster risk reduction on road projects li es in the planning phase of the project cycle which includes project identification and preparation of the feasibility study.Assessing the possible impact on the project of natural disasters or other hazards at this stage means that the appropriate risk reduction measures can be include in the scope, layout and arrangement of the projects major componentsand that these measures will be allowed for in the cost estimate. If such measures are not included at the planning phase, their inclusion at the later stages is unlikely, or could be costly and inconvenient (i. e. maybe requiring a supplementary budget). Attempting to include risk reduction measures at the design stage (after major elements of the project have been decided and the budget has been allocated) cannot adequately satisfy the need for disaster risk reduction. Recommendations DPWH needs to have a standard on project identification and preparation procedures to eliminate quality discrepancies between nationwide and externally funded projects and to pave the way for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in road projects. Feasibility reports should include assessments of the impact of potential disasters. An enhanced natural hazard/impact assessment component should be included in the EIA for nationally-funded and foreign-assisted projects The existing system for monitoring road needs to be improved to allow for the record of damage caused by natural disasters. Standard formats and reporting standards should be introduced for monitoring and for collecting damage data from the impact of natural disasters on roads. cogency of staff to assess the impact of natural disasters needs to be increased, particularly at the regional and district levels. The key to successful integration of disaster risk reduction on road projects lies in the planning phase Next Steps for mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into road sector in the Philippines In order to take forward the momentum gained under the PI P, the technical working group has identified the following next steps to realize the recommendations Identifying two pipeline road projects in a hazard prone area of the Philippines. The two projects would be at different stages namely a pipeline project without a feasibility study and a pipeline project with a feasibility study completed.Integrating disaster risk reduction (DRR) into the planning process of two identified pipeline project. Capacity building of officials from DPWH responsible for conducting feasibility studies on how to integrate DRR. Experience of PIP incorporated in the RCC guideline on mainstreaming disaster risk reduction into Infrastructure To share the experience gained during the process of implementation of the PIP with the remaining RCC member countries, the technical working group correspond by DPWH and NDCC participated in a regional technical workshop on developing the RCC Guideline on incorporating disaster risk assessments as part of planning proc ess before construction of new roads.The lessons learned from the PIP acted as the guiding admissiones for initiating mainstreaming disaster risk reduction. Regional Consultative Committee on Disaster Management (RCC) The RCC comprises of members who are working in key Government positions in the National Disaster Management Offices of countries of the Asian region. To date, 26 countries are represented by 30 RCC Members from the Asia and Pacific regions, namely, Afghanistan, Bangladesh Bhutan, Brunei, Cambodia, China, Georgia, India, Indonesia, Iran, Jordan, Kazakhstan, Korea, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Timor Leste and Vietnam.RCC Program on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Development Policy, Planning and Implementation in Asia (RCC MDRD) A key priority identified by the RCC is the integration of disaster risk considerations into development planning. To initiate action on this a greed direction, the RCC Program on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Development Policy, Planning and Implementation (MDRD) was launched at the 4th RCC meeting in Bangladesh in March 2004. The RCC 5 adopted the Hanoi RCC 5 command on Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction into Development in Asian Countries which prioritizes mainstreaming of DRR to be initiated in National development planning process as well as Sectoral development.It identified six priority sectors namely Agriculture, Education, Health, Housing, Urban Planning and Infrastructure and fiscal services for mainstreaming of DRR. The program has five components for implementation lot 1 Developing Guidelines and Tools for MDRD Component 2 chore Priority Implementation Partnerships (PIP) in MDRD in RCC Member Countries Component 3 Showcasing good practice on MDRD and Monitoring Progress Component 4 Advocacy for Building awareness and Political Support to MDRD Component 5 Mobilizing Partnerships for ongoing a nd sustainable implementation Lay-out and graphic design by Philipp Danao The Hanoi RCC 5 statement identified the following sub themes within the Urban Planning and Infrastructure to initiate mainstreaming of disaster risk reduction For more information, please contact Aloysius Rego, Director and Team Leader Email emailprotected net Arghya Sinha Roy, Project Manager Email emailprotected net Disaster Management transcriptions Team Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC) P. O. Box 4 Klong Luang Pathumthani 12120 Thailand Tel (66 2) 516 5900-10 Fax (66 2) 524-5350, 5360 Email emailprotected net website www. adpc. net Introducing Disaster Risk Impact Assessments into the construction of new roads and bridges Promoting the use of hazard risk information in land-use planning and regulate programsThis case study highlights the experience of undertaking a Priority Implementation Partnership on incorporating disaster risk impact assessments into the construction of new roads in the Philippines, implemented by the National Disaster Coordinating Council (NDCC) and Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH) with support from Asian Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC), UN International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ ISDR) and Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA). References ONLINE GuidetoComprehensiveDevelopmentPlan http//www. mongabay. com/reference/country_studies/philippines/GOVERNMENT. html AccessedJune26,2012 LocalGovernmentCode. http//www. chanrobles. com/localgov1. htm AccessedJune26,2012 LocalGovernmentinAsiaandthePacificAComparativeStudy. CountrypaperPhilippines http//www. unescap. org/huset/lgstudy/country/philippines/philippines. tml AccessedJune26,2012 LuzSeno? Ani. Participatoryterritorialplanningthefarmingsystemsdevelopmentapproachin communityplanninginthePhilippines,19952002. http//www. fao. org/docrep/005/Y8999T/y8999t06. htm AccessedJune26,2012 Philippines? Government http//www. mongabay. com/reference/country_stu dies/philippines/GOVERNMENT. html AccessedJune26,2012 RationalizingtheLocalPlanningSystem http//www. dilg. gov. ph/PDF_File/reports/DILG? Reports? 2011712? ea7ba5859e. pdf e? BOOK/BOOK Panadero,AustereA. (2008). StrategytoFurtherDecentralizationinthePhilippines. LOGODEF ledgeronLocalGovernance.TowardsMainstreamingDisasterRiskReductionintothePlanningProcessofRoadConstruction PHOTOS Gov. meetswithbrgyofficials http//pampangacapitol. ph/2011/10/06/gov? meets? with? barangay? officials/ corycaricature fromtheFilipinomindBobbyTuazon http//thefilipinomind. blogspot. com/2009/08/cora? aquino? how? politics? of? reform? lost. html CoverphotobySherylFernando,documentor,ExecutivemanagementcourseforPSWDOsand MSWDOsinMindanao Areportsubmittedinpartialfulfillmentoftherequirementsin DevelopmentManagementin nDevelopmentOrganizations Submit ttedto Dr. JedidaL. Aquino Profe essor Submittedby SherylI. F Fernando MD DM